While the sample size may seem small, it is a reflection of this sparsely populated rural area (as evidenced by the number of inhabitants given in Fig. Sci. Others chose to stay home because they did not believe the warnings and/or evacuation plan were relevant to them. The PADM shows that decision-making is initiated by environmental cues (e.g., the sight or sound of an eruption), social cues (e.g., neighbours evacuating) and/or warnings (e.g., official advice to evacuate). Population data sourced from slfur Gylfi Plmason, the head of the Rangring eystra municipality, and Statistics Iceland (2016). Accessed 14 Apr 2018, Stjrnarr slands (2014b) Regluger. [Initially] it had not been established as on Fimmvruhls but [we knew it was on the] east [side]. Despite volcanic eruptions in earlier times, the eruption of Iceland's Eyjafjallajkull in April and May 2010 served as a climactic point in aviation history. The IVATF finished its work in June 2012, and a record of its results is available. The research also highlights the importance of local residents knowing and sharing their stories and experiences with their neighbours. On the scientific front, there has been a notable increase in volcanic-cloud research since Eyjafjallajkull and the Cordon Caulle long-lived ash plume of 2011. I got a phone call from the officers who were on duty. The semi-structured interviews were audio recorded and transcribed by us. Bird, D.K., Gsladttir, G. Responding to volcanic eruptions in Iceland: from the small to the catastrophic. 0.0 / 5. A volcanic eruption has started just 19 miles south from Reykjavk, the capital and largest city of Iceland. the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in This research was conducted in accordance with Human Research Ethics Regulations outlined by the University of Iceland and involved obtaining informed consent from all participants. Google Scholar, Bird D, Gsladttir G (2014) How the children coped with the April 2010 Eyjafjallajkull eruption in Iceland. Given the South attracts the highest number of visitors outside the capital region (Bird et al., 2016), it is safe to assume that the changes in livelihood are a reflection of changes in the South. For example, there are distinct differences between decision-making and actions undertaken by men and women (Haynes et al., 2016, Haynes et al., 2010) and age plays a significant role, with younger males often taking greater risks than older age groups and women across all age groups (Haynes et al., 2016). A few months following the eruptions, we conducted a survey to investigate how impacted residents responded to and coped with the events. An exclusion zone was set up in the volcanic region. Flashcards. We were though temporarily isolated because the road connection broke. Again, residents in Slheimar and lftaver were not required to evacuate. Google Scholar, Mileti DS, Sorensen JH (1990) Communication of emergency public warnings: a social science perspective and state-of-the-art assessment. It is rare to find such a detailed study that spans the before and aftera perspective that is often unattainable due to the nature of natural hazard events. Solid red vertical line indicates timing of Icelands financial crash in 2008. The police overcame this issue during the 2010 evacuations by allowing farmers to re-enter the hazard zones to tend their livestock. Available: http://px.hagstofa.is/pxen/pxweb/en/Samfelag/Samfelag__vinnumarkadur__3_arstolur/VIN01111.px. In relation to the amalgamation and the timing of the 2006 evacuation exercise, one of the rescue team members from the 2010 interviews stated: The time for the evacuation exercises in 2006 was not logical because it had been decided that the police districts would be joined here in the south. About them coming with the sirens [makes siren sounds] and taking me I dont mind the eruption but please dont send the police! Residents trust in these officials has also evolved from officials listening to and developing strategies to meet the needs of the community. As volcanic ash fallout is predicted to reach ground level following the eruption of the Eyjafjallajkull volcano in Iceland, scientists from the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology have responded rapidly to increase sampling rates of air quality, soils and vegetation at its long-term monitoring sites across the UK. Exact figures on how many people were supposed to evacuate during both phases of the eruption are not available. Centre for Economic Policy Research, London, Dash N, Gladwin H (2007) Evacuation decision making and behavioral responses: individual and household. Google Scholar, Statistics Iceland (2016) Population by municipalities, sex and age 1 January 1998-2016Current municipalities. PubMedGoogle Scholar. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications (Humanit Soc Sci Commun) Within these local communities (geographic location), people are bound together by relations of affect, loyalty and common values and as such, they have a certain familiarity with each other (Brint, 2001). In the wake of the 2010 eruption of Iceland's Eyjafjallajkull volcano, scientists are developing infrared technology to help pilots see and steer around ash clouds 4:05 Published: 7 Dec 2011 With respect to the latter, we draw similar data (i.e., from Bird et al., 2011) obtained prior to the eruptions to compare against post-event perceptions. Palgrave Communications That means the 7-day shutdown of much of Europe's air traffic ordered by civil aviation authorities, which affected 10 million passengers and cost between 1.5 billion and 2.5 billion, was likely worth it. A one-size-fits-all approach among diverse populations is unlikely to generate a proactive public response to future evacuation orders (Mileti et al., 2004, Paveglio et al., 2017, Tierney et al., 2001). However, more respondents acknowledged the necessity of evacuating during the summit eruption (75%) than the flank eruption (54%). There was hardly any registration of who were where and who were missing (A-E). Importantly, there is greater trust in those responsible for public safety, i.e., local police and the DCPEM. Researching disaster risk is therefore an ongoing challenge requiring a continual process of generating understanding of the changing environmental and societal characteristics that influence disaster vulnerability. The approximate 700 residents that evacuated were allowed to return to their homes when the eruption was confirmed in the flank of the volcano and not under the glacier. Thank you for visiting nature.com. Aggregated livelihood data is therefore presented for outside the capital region from 19912016 (i.e., the time period available from Statistics Iceland). All interviewees and respondents are graciously thanked for their willingness to participate in this study. Lava fountain and lava flows from the Holuhraun fissure eruption on Iceland, Sep 2014 (Bardarbunga volcano) (Photo: Lukas Gawenda) Multiple lava fountain from the Holuhraun fissure eruption . Given the immediate need for evacuation, particularly for a catastrophic Katla eruption, these perspectives provide a critical viewpoint of how and why people behave the way they do when faced with a volcanic crisis. They can also die from famine, fires and earthquakes which can be related to volcanoes. https://www.stjornarradid.is/media/innanrikisraduneyti-media/media/frettir-2014/logreglan.pdf. The structure of the population, however, changed during this period with losses in the 017 year and 3044 year age categories across both genders between 2000 and 2016 (Fig. What were the responses to the 2002 eruption of Mount Nyiragongo? But an eruption does not worry us. The tourism industry, however, is rapidly growing, with the South attracting the highest number of visitors outside the capital region (Bird et al., 2016). Long Term. 0.0 / 5. The authors declare no competing interests. or more economically developed countries. This is the ninth video for the AQA GCSE 9-1 Geography course, and the ninth video of the Cha. Responses to the event (international and domestic) - Immediate and long term Eyjafjallajokull is in Iceland, and is an example of a major volcanic eruption. Tephra fallout and flood inundation data derived from Gudmundsson et al., (2012) and orkelsson (2012). Residents in Slheimar and lftaver stated they were not required to evacuate. Austur-Eyjafjll respondents also recorded the greatest impacts with respect to their home, while Slheimar respondents recorded the greatest impacts to them and/or their familys health and financially. For example, rural residents responsible for livestock questioned their ability to comply with evacuation orders (Bird et al., 2009b, Bird et al., 2011). Transcripts were analysed and coded according to the core topics of the 2010 questionnaire. Iceland: volcanic eruption prompts European Red Cross response Format News and Press Release Source. High tech equipment is now used to measure volcanic activity Warning systems A text message system, where it warns people within 30 mins of the volcano if there will be an eruption. It is a small community. 2), and their associated fissure systems, have the highest eruption frequency and greatest volcanic productivity in Iceland (Thordarson and Larsen, 2007). Long-term responses . There is also economic change occurring with respect to peoples livelihoods. Additionally, people were concerned about the designated evacuation centres. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Brint S (2001) Gemeinschaft revisited: a critique and reconstruction of the community concept. The farm is on a hill and in my opinion there was no risk of flooding (A-E). Map produced by rds Hgnadttir. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. They were moved to a certain place but they didnt get the necessary information about why and how (O). E-15 volcano (short&long term responses) Flashcards. Furthermore, South Icelands Hekla, Katla, Grmsvtn and Brarbunga volcanoes (Fig. Most respondents were aged 50+ years and were farmers (Table 1). It can be annoying. Report for the Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC, Melbourne, Haynes K, Handmer J, Mcaneney J, Tibbits A, Coates L (2010) Australian bushfire fatalities 19002008: exploring trends in relation to the Prepare, stay and defend or leave early policy. The eruption has prompted further research into air craft design. The last composite volcano eruption occurred on March 20, 2010. Migration into the South region (Statistics Iceland, 2017b). 7. 150km2 of reforestation projects destroyed. To obtain ; A volcanic observatory was built to monitor the volcano. The calls are increasing. They could put more effort in it. Data derived from Statistics Iceland (2017a). a near-term response (Arsenal Match Highlights Today, Minnesota . We would be much, much more afraid if somebody told us about the possibility of a huge earthquake in the ocean with the coast with a wave [tsunami]. Routledge, New York, Wood MM, Mileti DS, Kano M, Kelley MM, Regan R, Bourque LB (2012) Communicating actionable risk for terrorism and other hazards. Risk Anal 32:601615. Accessed 1 Dec 2017, Statistics Iceland (2017b) Internal migration between regions by sex and age 1986-2016-Division into municipalites as of 1 January 2017. http://px.hagstofa.is/pxen/pxweb/en/Ibuar/Ibuar__buferlaflutningar__buferlaflinnanlands__buferlaflinnanlands/MAN01002.px. Eyjafjallajkull Volcano, Iceland 2010. The Heimaey eruption of 1973 kick-started Iceland's rescue and evacuation framework in earnest, and today the Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management oversees these kinds of operations. 1) producing spectacular fire-fountain activity and lava flows. The results section is presented under the three subsections: 2010 Eyjafjallajkull survey, 2016 interviews and the changing demographics of South Iceland. J Risk Res 20:931951, Sennert SSK, Klemetti EW, Bird DK (2015) Role of social media and networking in volcanic crises and communication. It already now counts as the largest on Iceland in over 100 years. The inherent challenges this enhanced diversity brings with respect to developing risk mitigation strategies cannot be ignored. Following the collapse of Icelands banking system in October 2008 (Danielsson, 2009), the region has experienced an increase in international migration (growth of 2.54 between 2009 and 2016), as well as that from the capital region (growth of 1.30 between 2011 and 2016), as shown in Fig. These communities were targeted due to their exposure to volcanic hazards during the 2010 eruptions/their locations in relation to Katlas jkulhlaup hazard zones (for details on the hazard zones, see Bird et al., 2011). Environmental cues, observed and communicated by farmers in Fljtshl as a fire on top of the mountain, were the first notification that alerted officials and monitoring scientists that an eruption had commenced on 20 March 2010. Consisting of local residents as volunteers, some of whom form part of the local rescue team, their role is to sweep their neighbourhood by going from house to house to ensure everyone has received the warnings and have, or are in the process of evacuating to their designated centre (Bird et al., 2009b). Something went wrong thenbut our kids in Reykjavk, college students, they got an alarm. These figures are approximate based on some respondents noting a range in the number of people living at that address in the questionnaire. We still live with ash storm when the wind is blowing (S). We have a similar amount of policemen as we had in 2004 (O). 4). Springer International Publishing, Cham, Sigfsdttir ID, Thorlindsson T, Kristjnsson L, Roe KM, Allegrante JP (2009) Substance use prevention for adolescents: the Icelandic Model. The former two incorporate the qualitative results mixed with verbatim quotes from the 2010 and 2016 interviews and open responses given in the 2010 questionnaire. With more people engaging in tourism, the police/DCPEM should also be cognisant of the possibility of tour operators feeling obliged to engage in activities that enhance their vulnerability. I had a text message from the Civil Defence authorities and I said OK. And then our daughter called. They can reduce sunlight by blocking out the sun and even cause problems for air travel like the recent Iceland volcano. This unrealistic optimistic bias, where people consider themselves less vulnerable than others in their community (Paton et al. Of particular import to the study presented here is data pertaining to population, migration and livelihood. Balancing this loss was growth in all other categories (except 4559 year old males) between 2000 and 2016, with the greatest among females 6074 years (growth of 1.43), males 75+ years (growth of 1.31) and females (growth of 1.23) and males 1829 years (growth of 1.19). (background, Total number of people employed in main and second jobs held outside the capital region and within the farming (crop and animal production, hunting and related service activities) and tourism sectors (Statistics Iceland, 2017c). This optimism was frequently linked to their experience of Eyjafjallajkull. Aust J Emerg Manag 27:2733, Bird D, Mcleman R, Gsladttir G, Kelman I, Nss MW, Ptursdttir G, Jhannesdttir G (2016) Climate change and settlement level impacts. 2008, Sjberg, 2000, Weinstein, 1987), may be directly linked to residents predicting their future vulnerability based on their personal experience of the Eyjafjallajkull eruptions. Conducted as a more open interview than the rigorous 2010 interviews, the 2016 interviews lasted between 17 and 57min. We believed the scientists when they said Eyjafjallajkull was lazy. People used to be everywhere and its still the same, but now there are 30 times, 100 times more [tourists]. J Hazard Mater 75:181194, Article Flexibility in the evacuation plans also helped people cope and residents were impressed with open and transparent communication from officials. We got away relatively well from ash fall and the jkulhlaup went only over grazing land and not cultivated land. People talked about the possibility of Eyjafjallajkull [erupting], and we were light-hearted about it you know, saying wow, it can erupt. They banded together with neighbours and friends to help each other through the tough times but they also had great concerns for their livestock. I said [at the pre-eruption meetings] that you have some safe areas but they are also isolated. Soc Sci J 36:515523, Gladwin C, Gladwin H, Peacock WG (2001) Modeling hurricane evacuation decisions with ethnographic methods. The central volcanoes along the off-rift volcanic zones in Iceland were the source of at least 19 eruptions of dominant alkali rhyolitic composition, with three distinct episodes recorded at 4.6 . Cite this article. While 2010 respondents believed it is more likely a Katla eruption will occur in the next 10 years, they perceived less damage would occur particularly in relation to their property (Fig. Basaltic lava is fluid in nature. The first evacuation orders that residents in Vestur-Eyjafjll and Austur-Eyjafjll received came from DCPEM/police (38% A-E; 43% V-E), family, friends or neighbours (31% A-E; 14% V-E) and, the rescue teams (6% A-E; 14% V-E)Footnote 1. Setting In spring 2010, the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajkull erupted. Average sentiment (where 1=not at all and 5=completely) in regards to respondents perception of the levels of preparedness for a Katla eruption (n2008=19, n2010=5456). I was born here. Based on those advisories, over 300 airports in about two dozen countries, and a correspondingly large airspace, were closed in Europe during 15-21 April 2010. Average sentiment (where 1=not at all and 5=completely) in regards to respondents levels of trust in information from various sources about a future Katla eruption (n2008=19, n2010=5458). There is an old Icelandic saying: You couldnt see/distinguish your hands. I now understand this. While this is a limitation of the present study, we do not believe it detracts from the overall results. Health effects inlcude respiratory problems, eye problems, and skin irritiation. Iceland is home to multiple volcanoes and so is used to dealing with eruptions. The long-term impact proved to be just as catastrophic, as the community never recovered from the lahars that engulfed it. Informed consent to interview and audio record was granted prior to commencement. The different coloured blue areas denote the four districts. The relatively small, homogenous population of Iceland coupled with its peoples desire to cooperate contributed to this success. 27% of respondents reported receiving news of the summit eruption from DCPEM/police. It would have therefore been more logical to practice it under the new police jurisdiction once it had been created (RT). Accessed 8 Nov 2016, Statistics Iceland (2017a) Population by municipality, age and sex 1998-2017 - Division into municipalites as of 1 January 2017. http://px.hagstofa.is/pxen/pxweb/en/Ibuar/Ibuar__mannfjoldi__2_byggdir__sveitarfelog/MAN02005.px/table/tableViewLayout1/?rxid=813b90ba-b0e0-4863-a995-a9c8bb7e9bbc. However, they chose to stay at home because they were caring for elderly parents who were unwell. An immediate evacuation was considered critical, given the assessment showed that inhabited areas may be flooded by a jkulhlaup within an hour of an eruption commencing in Eyjafjallajkull (Sigursson et al., 2011). Risk Anal 20:112, Sorensen JH, Sorensen BV (2007) Community processes: warning and evacuation. Accessed 14 Apr 2018, Strahan K, Whittaker J, Handmer J (2018) Self-evacuation archetypes in Australian bushfire. This district is now about 31,000km2. A further 21% received news from family, friends or neighbours and 36% heard about it on the radio. Please note, the questionnaire did not specifically ask respondents whether or not they received information from a sweeper. It is almost impossible to know exactly how many people are located in a given area at any point in time. All data was entered into SurveyMonkey and exported into Microsoft Excel for analysis. A largely unknown, hard-to-pronounce volcano erupted, grinding Europe to a halt. Eldfell after my visit to Eldheimar. Extreme Peril - 2010 Mt- St- Helen's Eruption was released on: USA: 11 March 2010 When did the volcano eruption happen in montserrat? (7 marks) For a named area, describe the short-term and long-term effects of a volcanic eruption on people living in the area. Hence, we accessed data on the total number of people employed in main and second jobs held outside the capital region and within the farming (crop and animal production, hunting and related service activities) and tourism sectors. In addition to these systems, recent unrest in rfajkull has called for the development of further emergency response plans in South Iceland (Almannavarnadeild Rkislgreglustjrinn, 2017, Hskuldsson, 2015). This evacuation could be listed as disorganised (A-E). I started to explain to them what happened, why we evacuated in such a hurryI waited to see the response and get the anger but it was quite the opposite. Over 100,000 flights were cancelled over that week, affecting 7 million passengers, and resulting in $1.7 billion USD in lost revenue to airlines according to an analysis by Oxford Economics. It May Be About to Erupt - Newstimepaper, This week 17,000 earthquakes struck southwestern Iceland. I dont think that anyone around here was afraid. Never in my whole life have I been in such darkness. Many respondents had lived at their address (during surveying) all their lives with almost two-thirds having lived there 30 years or more and most having family in the region for two or more generations, with the longest at seven generations. Ascending the volcano. We drove down to the highway and we could see a little reddish glow and of course we were excited, almost having fun because we were not afraid at all. [My family has lived in this region as] far back as I am able to remember (S). -Icelandic red cross- 60 volunteers provided food for the farming population. Joseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C. Tversky A, Kahneman D (1973) Availability: a heuristic for judging frequency and probability. Sveinn Rnarsson, 2018). The majority of respondents declared farming as their occupation. Possible causes of climate change: natural factors - orbital changes, volcanic activity and solar output. And of course [Eyjafjallajkull] they want to say theyve been here. further research into the effect on the ash on aircraft . 1). Despite this, some appreciated the eruption for its sheer beauty and force. Springer, New York, MATH You have to know what is around you. The questionnaire was administered as a hardcopy. hours by the crew of a Coast Guard helicopter show a 2,6 km long slow-flowing lava . 08 July 2021. In comparison, specific migration details are not available by municipality, i.e., Statistics Iceland only provides aggregated data at a regional level. Sustained long-term efforts are needed to minimize the loss of lives from future eruptions. But foremost you felt powerlessness, tranquillity, and respect towards nature (V-E). Nearly all flights in Europe and across the Atlantic Ocean were suspended for almost a week, as ash from the eruption of the volcano threatened flight safety. Residents attributed this success to the desire to conform to authorities that are known to them on a more personal basis. They said we feel safe at home because we know you are watching us (O). I therefore did not evacuate, as I felt safer at home (V-E). Experience prior to and during the flank eruption that began on 20th March in Fimmvruhls; Experience prior to and during the summit eruption that began on 14th April under Eyjafjallajkull; Impacts of the eruptions on you, your family and property; Use of various media sources for acquiring information about the possibility of a future Katla/Eyjafjallajkull eruption; Perceived level of preparedness for a future Katla eruption; Perceived possibility of a future Katla eruption and its effects; Trust in information from various sources about a future Katla eruption. Learn. Silicosis is a disease resulting in lung impairment and scarring, from exposure to particles of free crystalline silica. Disaster researchers have, however, applied a range of theoretical perspectives to enhance our understanding of the process of decision-making in response to imminent threats. Within these communities, people are bound together by common beliefs, values and activities. 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